Lalla, R.V., Bowen, J., Barasch, A., Elting, L., Epstein, J., Keefe, D.M., ... Mucositis Guidelines Leadership Group of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer and International Society of Oral Oncology (MASCC/ISOO). (2014). MASCC/ISOO clinical practice guidelines for the management of mucositis secondary to cancer therapy. Cancer, 120, 1453–1461.
570 articles were included in this literature review. Literature contained prevention and/or treatment methods for mucositis. Interventions for treatment of mucositis were given, recommendations against an intervention were provided, suggestions in favor of an intervention were supplied, and suggestions against an intervention were given.
Recommendations included a combination of teeth brushing, flossing, mouth rinsing, and use of growth factors and cytokines in treatment of mucositis. The use of anti-inflammatory agents was also recommended. Low level laser therapy was recommended in prevention of mucositis with specific types of cancer treatment. Cryotherapy was also recommended for patients receiving chemotherapy. A list of natural and miscellaneous agents was recommended for treatment and prevention of mucositis.
Limitations of this study include clinical situations that were not seen in the literature review or that are rare in clinical settings. These limitations occur because of conflicting evidence or not enough evidence provided.
Nurses should be assessing patients' pain control, nutritional support, ability to eat, and oral hygiene practices, and should be teaching on the use of oral care products that are essential for prevention.
Lalla, R.V., Choquette, L.E., Curley, K.F., Dowsett, R.J., Feinn, R.S., Hegde, U.P., . . . Peterson, D.E. (2014). Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of celecoxib for oral mucositis in patients receiving radiation therapy for head and neck cancer. Oral Oncology, 50, 1098–1103.
To investigate the effects of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibition on the severity and morbidity or oral mucositis in patients with head and neck cancer undergoing radiation based on the role of inflammatory pathways in oral mucositis pathogenesis
Patients were randomized using a one-to-one ratio in blocks of 10 to receive either celecoxib or a placebo. The celecoxib and placebo capsules were identical. The first four patients took 200 mg of celecoxib twice per day beginning five days prior to the first day of radiation therapy and continuing for three days after the conclusion of radiation therapy. Dosing was modified for all subsequent patients to 200 mg of oral celecoxib once per day only on the days of radiation therapy from the first to the last day of therapy. Subsequent patients assigned to the control arm took the placebo once per day for the same duration. Data were collected two to three times per week for the six to seven weeks during which radiation occurred.
Prospective, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, parallel-arm trial
There was no difference in oral mucositis severity between the celecoxib and placebo groups (p = .67).
The use of a COX-2 inhibitor during radiation in patients with head and neck cancer did not reduce the severity of clinical oral mucositis, mouth pain, dietary compromise, or use of opioid analgesics. This study’s power calculation seems to be weak. The dropout and missing data rate (usually 20%) should be added to satisfy the original power calculation. This increases the significant risk of type II error. Without a study with a larger sample size, this practice cannot be recommended.
This is not an effective option for treating radiation-induced mucositis.
Lalami, Y., Paesmans, M., Aoun, M., Munoz-Bermeo, R., Reuss, K., Cherifi, S., . . . Klastersky, J. (2004). A prospective randomised evaluation of G-CSF or G-CSF plus oral antibiotics in chemotherapy-treated patients at high risk of developing febrile neutropenia. Supportive Care in Cancer, 12, 725–730.
The study focused on the secondary prevention of febrile neutropenia with G-CSF and antibiotics.
G-CSF (5 mcg/kg subcutaneous) or G-CSF with antibiotics (ciprofloxacin 500 mg by mouth every eight hours and amoxicillin 500 mg by mouth or clavulanate 125 mg by mouth every eight hours) daily starting 48 hours after chemotherapy and continuing until the absolute neutrophil count is greater than 2,000 cells/mm³. Patients were included in the study for one treatment cycle.
Two sites in Europe.
Prospective, randomized pilot trial.
Patients were evaluated with:
In the event of a fever, the antibiotic prophylaxis was discontinued and a complete clinical evaluation for infection was completed.
No episodes of febrile neutropenia occurred in the G-CSF group, and only one incident of febrile neutropenia was reported in the combined group (p = 1). Reported side effects were similar and mild.
G-CSF reduced the risk of febrile neutropenia recurrence. Antibiotics did not provide any additional benefit in terms of prophylaxis.
Lajolo, P.P., De Camargo, B., & Del Giglio, A. (2009). Omission of day 2 of antiemetic medications is a cost saving strategy for improving chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting control results of a randomized phase III trial. American Journal of Clinical Oncology, 32, 23–26.
To evaluate the effect of omitting day 2 administration of granisetron in the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV)
The study was conducted at a single outpatient setting in Brazil.
All patients were in active treatment.
This was a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial.
Differences in rates of complete protection from nausea and vomiting in this study were unclear and difficult to interpret because different groups experienced better CINV control at different time points.
No clear conclusions can be drawn from this study.
Lajolo, P.P., & del Giglio, A. (2007). Skipping day 2 antiemetic medications may improve chemotherapy induced delayed nausea and vomiting control: Results of two pilot phase II trials. Supportive Care in Cancer, 15(3), 343-346.
To evaluate whether skipping day 2 antiemetic medications may improve delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV), based on the hypothesis that repeated consecutive doses of antiemetics may lead to increased accumulation of 5-HT3 at the presynaptic level in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, decreasing the activity of the next dose of a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist (tachyphylaxis)
Patients were given day 1 antiemetics according to American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) guidelines. Patients in Study 1 received 10 mg metochlopramide by mouth every eight hours, 0.05 mg granisetron by mouth four times per day, and 8 mg dexamethasone four times per day on days 2 and 3. In Study 2, patients received the same medications except that no drugs were given on day 2. Patients recorded emetic episodes in diaries and responded to a quality-of-life (QOL) questionnaire at baseline and on day 6.
The studies were conducted in the hematology and oncology department of a School of Medicine in Brazil.
This research consisted of two pilot studies.
The Functional Living Index of Vomiting (FLIE) was used.
Skipping day 2 antiemetic medications does not seem to worsen delayed CINV and may reduce CINV.
Study limitations include the use of a nonrandomized design and the small sample size.
Lai, W., Chao, C., Chantal, Yang, W., & Chen, C. (2010). Efficacy of guided imagery with theta music for advanced cancer patients with dyspnea: A pilot study. Biological Research for Nursing, 12(2), 188-197.
The objective of the study was to investigate the effect of guided imagery with theta music on dyspnea in patients with advanced cancer.
The intervention consisted of four periods.
Theta music was provided by a recording designed to stimulate brain waves in the theta range of 4–8 Hz. Music was provided by a standard audio CD with headphones. Dyspnea rating was done in the first and last periods of the intervention, while resting quietly. Physiologic parameters of respiratory rate, heart rate, end tidal CO2, and pulse oxygen saturation were collected at each of the four segments of the intervention. Physiologic parameters were continuously measured using a Tidal Wave 715 capnograph/pulse oximeter, using a finger probe. Patients were interviewed at the end of the session via open-ended questions to elicit how they felt.
The study was conducted in a multi-site, inpatient setting in Taiwan.
Single group repeated measures
Findings support the hypothesis that subjects who receive the guided imagery and theta music intervention experience reduction in heart and respiratory rate and subjective intensity of dyspnea.
Lai, T.K., Cheung, M.C., Lo, C.K., Ng, K.L., Fung, Y.H., Tong, M., & Yau, C.C. (2011). Effectiveness of aroma massage on advanced cancer patients with constipation: A pilot study. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 17, 37–43.
To evaluate the effectiveness of aroma massage in the treatment of constipation, as well as its impact on quality of life (QOL).
Patients were randomized to one of three groups: aroma abdominal massage, plain abdominal massage, or control. Fifteen- to 20-minute massages were offered daily for five consecutive days by the principal investigator and four other trained investigators. Patients completed questionnaires on days 1 and 5. Patients were withdrawn from the study if they required increased use of laxatives, had symptoms such as shortness of breath or fatigue, or were transferred or discharged from the hospital.
This was a randomized controlled trial.
Constipation is a common, preventable problem in patients with cancer. Nurses should have knowledge of alternative nonpharmacologic approaches to help patients manage this side effect.
Nurses play a vital role in the treatment and prevention of constipation.
Lai, H.L., Li, Y.M., & Lee, L.H. (2012). Effects of music intervention with nursing presence and recorded music on psycho-physiological indices of cancer patient caregivers. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 21, 745–756.
To compare the effects of music intervention with nursing presence (MINP) and the effects of recorded music (RM) on various psychological and physiologic indices among caregivers of patients with cancer. The recorded indices included the incidence of depression and anxiety, sleep, blood volume pulse (BVP) amplitude, and the low/high frequency ratio component of heart rate variability (HRV).
Participants were seated on a comfortable chair in their own homes. A photoplethysmograph was worn on the left-hand middle finger to continuously monitor BVP amplitude and HRV.
The intervention groups were MINP versus RM. Interventions were alternated between MINP and RM with an interval of one week between each intervention. Each intervention took place in the participant’s home for 30 minutes and generally after dinner according to participant preference. In the MINP intervention, participants were told to imagine they were attending a concert. During MINP, the primary researcher was present and played music on the erhu (Chinese violin) and recorder without any verbal communication or interruption. The live music included diverse pieces such as Japanese, Chinese, Taiwanese, English, and Czech music. Music selections were well known by participants and expected to create immediate enjoyment, and all had similar musical characteristics and quality. Rhythm ranged from 60–80 beats, and the tempo was slow. In the RM intervention, participants were left alone to listen to 30 minutes of the same music selections prerecorded on a CD. The music volume was adjusted to a comfortable level before the session. Study measurement was obtained pre and post each intervention.
A randomized, crossover, controlled trial design was used.
Both MINP and RM interventions had significant beneficial effects on anxiety, depression, and BVP amplitude (p < 0.0001). A treatment effect across different time points was observed in BVP amplitude and LF/HF ratio in both groups, indicating that MINP and RM both have beneficial effects on BVP and LF/HF ratio. There were no significant differences between the two music interventions in terms of participant evaluation of enjoyment and peacefulness, but participants evaluated RM as being more harmonious than live music, and MINP with live music and nurse presence as more friendly. Participants preferred Chinese music, then followed mostly by Czech music. Regarding the four aspects of sleep measured, MINP was found to affect only \"ease of getting to sleep” (p < 0.0007).
Both music interventions were beneficial on psychological indices, with a reduction in anxiety and depression scores and a long-term dose effect on BVP. Intervention worked well for a sample having moderate degrees of anxiety and, in some cases, clinical depression in prestudy assessment and for a sample of women who liked Chinese and folk music.
Music, either live with the nurse present or recorded for 30 minutes, may be beneficial in reducing anxiety and depression in women with cancer as well as their caregivers. Nurses can encourage the use of music as a way of reducing stress throughout the cancer journey. Listening to music appreciated by the caregiver may enhance coping early in the caregiving cycle and prevent negative effects during challenges of cancer treatment and survivorship. Music prescription is an inexpensive intervention and useful for caregivers who prioritize music as part of their culture.
Lai, N.M., Lai, N.A., O'Riordan, E., Chaiyakunapruk, N., Taylor, J.E., & Tan, K. (2016). Skin antisepsis for reducing central venous catheter-related infections. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 7, CD010140.
STUDY PURPOSE: To evaluate skin antisepsis in reducing catheter-related bloodstream infections (BSIs), catheter colonization, morbidities, and mortality
TYPE OF STUDY: Meta-analysis and systematic review
PHASE OF CARE: Not specified or not applicable
Analysis of chlorhexidine versus povidone iodine showed a relative risk of 0.064 (p = 0.05) in favor of chlorhexidine for the outcome of BSI. No significant difference existed between these two methods for all-cause mortality. Chlorhexidine was associated with less catheter colonization (RR = –0.08, p = 0.0003). Few studies compared the use of alcohol, octenidine, hydrogen peroxide, and silver.
The findings suggest that skin antisepsis with chlorhexidine is most effective in reducing BSI; however, the overall quality of the evidence is very low to moderate.
Mostly low quality/high risk of bias studies
Chlorhexidine is generally more effective than povidone iodine or alcohol for skin antisepsis as part of catheter care for reducing catheter-related BSIs and catheter colonization.
Laffin, N., Smyth, W., Heyer, E., Fasugba, O., Abernethy, G., & Gardner, A. (2015). Effectiveness and acceptability of a moisturizing cream and a barrier cream during radiation therapy for breast cancer in the tropics. Cancer Nursing, 38, 205–214.
To compare the effectiveness of Cavilon Durable Barrier Cream (Cavilon) and 100% Pure Sorbolene Cream (Sorbolene) for the prevention of moist desquamation in patients with breast cancer receiving radiation in a tropical setting, and to explore patient preference of the two products
Patients applied Cavilon or Sorbalene to intact skin at least twice daily from day 1 of treatment until 4 weeks post completion of treatment. Nurse assessment of skin reactions occurred weekly during treatment, with final skin assessment via telephone one month after completion of the treatment. If moist desquamation occurred, cream was stopped and dressings were applied, which was standard practice.
PHASE OF CARE: Active antitumor treatment
Patients were stratified by breast or chest wall radiation with random allocation to barrier (Cavilon) or moisturizing (Sorbolene) cream.
Skin type was determined by using the validated Fitzpatrick Skin Type Scale. Weekly skin assessment was completed using the Common Terminology Criteria and Adverse Events (CTCAE), version 4, scoring criteria. Acceptability of cream was determined by a five-question acceptability survey.
Cavalon was found to significantly reduce moist desquamation during treatment in patients with chest wall radiation (p = 0.047). Participants preferred Cavalon over Sorbolene during treatment (p = 0.02), but no statistical difference in preference of cream existed at follow-up. At the end of treatment, 15% of patients had moist desquamation, and 26% of patients self-reported moist desquamation at telephone follow-up. With pooled data of breast and chest wall treatment, no significant difference existed between skin treatment groups experiencing moist desquamation during treatment and at follow-up. Statistically significant risk factors for moist desquamation were larger breast cup size, i.e., larger than a C cup (p = 0.003); higher BMI (p = 0.01); and prior chemotherapy (p = 0.04). No statistical significance existed with skin type, smoking, or effects of tropical weather measured by the Fitzpatrick scale.
A high incidence for moist desquamation existed in patients receiving radiation for breast cancer, particularly in patients receiving radiation to the chest wall.
Nurses should discuss risk factors that pertain to patients when educating on the skin effects of radiation. As many patients develop moist desquamation following completion of treatment, discharge information and management plans are needed.